Tanzania guide
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| © New Internationalist |
The United Republic of Tanzania is a country of immense cultural diversity, especially marked between mainland Christian and coastal Islamic areas. Whilst development strategies are therefore complex, there will be disappointment that Tanzania has been unable to achieve meaningful progress in poverty reduction. The country enjoys peace, stable politics, generous aid and debt relief, and has achieved many years of exceptional “growth”. Yet important human development surveys published during 2008 present a picture of unchanging poverty for most of the population.
updated March 2009
Poverty in Tanzania
The rate of “basic needs” poverty in Tanzania is assessed by reference to the cost of a minimum calorie diet together with essential non-food items. The 2015 target for the purpose of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is to halve the 39% rate effective in 1990. Prospects for success are very poor, as by 2007 the rate had fallen only as far as 34%. Indeed, due to population growth of over 2.5% pa, the number of people living in poverty has increased from 11.4 million to 12.9 million since 2000.
Furthermore, the Household Budget Survey (HBS) recording these results was conducted before the 2008 surge in food and fuel prices which has hit hardest at the poorest families. According to the HBS, progress in poverty reduction since the previous survey in 2000 is “not large enough to be statistically significant.” It makes the same observation in respect of the 17% of the population in extreme poverty, unable to meet even essential food needs.
This conclusion must come as a blow to the Tanzanian government. The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), known as Mkukuta in Swaheli (and Mkuza for Zanzibar), covers the 5 year period to 2010 and involved detailed consultation with international and local development stakeholders. Encouraged by the international financial institutions, the NSGRP places great emphasis on the contribution of economic growth to poverty reduction, linkage which has failed to deliver. The impressive growth rates in recent years have so far rewarded only the tiny urban elite that participates in the formal economy.
This gloomy picture is greatly cheered by the phenomenal progress in getting children into school that has occurred since 2004, thanks to the lifting of fees and the construction of hundreds of new schools. Net primary school enrolment has rocketed from 65% in 2001 to 97% in 2007; with girls benefiting as much as boys. These key MDG targets are therefore close to fulfilment. Given that the number of primary pupils has almost doubled to 8 million in this 6 year period, there are inevitable problems of capacity and the government has conceded that over 5,000 additional teachers are needed. Problems are also acknowledged in the failure of many children to complete the full period of primary education.
Tanzania is the largest recipient of aid in sub-Saharan Africa with over 40% of its budget funded by international donors. However, a recent survey uncovered the public perception that aid delivers greater benefits to civil servants than the poor. Appropriately, perhaps, Tanzania has been selected as a pilot country for the “One UN” concept. This seeks to avoid duplication of programmes amongst the large number of UN agencies active in the country.
Health and HIV/AIDS in Tanzania
Although prevalence of HIV/AIDS has stabilised since 2001, it remains as high as 6.2% on the mainland. There are 1.4 million people living with HIV/AIDS of whom 10% are children under 14. The number of AIDS orphans is projected to rise to over one million by 2010. Vast amounts of donor funds for HIV/AIDS have poured in, a third of all Tanzania’s foreign aid.
Coordinated by the Tanzania Commission for AIDS, years of public campaigns have created high awareness of the risks of HIV. A mass testing programme has reached over 4 million people and nearly 400,000 are receiving anti-retroviral treatment, within sight of the goal of universal coverage. However, the most recent national progress report warns that circumstances of widespread poverty create a difficult environment for overturning strong cultural norms of behaviour, especially in attitudes towards women. Legislation was passed during 2008 to protect the rights of people living with HIV and to prohibit discrimination.
Lack of capacity in rural areas is another important constraint, affecting all areas of health care. Whilst child mortality has fallen significantly since 2000, maternal mortality appears to be worsening, to the considerable consternation of both government and aid agencies. Data is unreliable but maternal mortality in 2005 has been estimated at 578 per 100,000 births, higher than the rate in 1996. Only 27% of births in rural areas were attended by a qualified health worker.
The government’s response is a 10-year Primary Health plan which aims to expand the availability of clinics and staff. However, this does not address the worrying reversals in the provision of safe drinking water. The HBS reports that “there has been a decrease in the use of piped water and other protected sources in all areas.” Almost 50% of households are using unprotected water sources. Whilst the report concedes that confusion over definitions of safe water may blur the overall trend, it is unequivocal that urban access has deteriorated. It seems likely that this disturbing outcome may be attributable to controversial privatisation programmes, now abandoned.
Food Security in Tanzania
Poverty in Tanzania is very substantially located in rural areas where most of the population lives. Nearly 70% of employment is in agriculture, mostly dependent on rainfed crops with poor access to transport, market knowledge and credit. Food sufficiency therefore varies considerably; in good years the country may enjoy a surplus beyond its needs. However, 40% of the population lives in areas described by the World Food Programme as “chronic food-deficit regions” where rainfall is scarce and irregular.
Over 20% of young children are underweight and malnutrition is the cause of about 25% of child mortality. Rural households spend 66% of their incomes on food and will have struggled to maintain their normal diet as prices of staple foods and fuel rose during 2008. The vuli rainy season for the end of 2008 has been reported as below average, suggesting that 2009 will be another difficult year. It is not surprising that the government is under pressure to review its enthusiasm for proposals to sell land to foreign investors to grow biofuel crops such as sugarcane and jatropha.
Climate Change in Tanzania
The 2006 MDG Progress Report for Tanzania makes not a single mention of the impact of climate change on poverty reduction plans. Yet the country's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) published in the following year offers over 60 pages of alarming grounds for concern. Of greatest significance is the assessment that a 2 degree rise in temperature could reduce yields of Tanzania's staple maize crop by as much as 33%. Diversifying into new crop varieties will test impoverished farmers to the limit.
Tanzania is home to one of the great symbols of climate change - the melting icecap of Mount Kilimanjaro - which is projected to lose its permanence by 2020. However the greater significance of the Kilimanjaro region is the impact of temperature change on its sensitive forest ecosystem and the role that plays in the water cycle. Indeed water management dominates the NAPA list of recommended adaptation projects - irrigation, conservation, harvesting and hydropower - all vital in defending a rural economy which the World Food Programme describes as "highly susceptible to climatic shocks".
Malaria is already reported to be established on the slopes of Kilimanjaro, an unprecedented hazard for local people. Other potential national impacts include increased insect infestations and pressure on the "rangelands" already overused for livestock. Clearly the poorest communities are most at risk. It seems illogical to pump hundreds of millions of aid dollars into Tanzania's development agenda whilst climate change adaptation funds contemplate mere fractions of these sums.
Politics in Tanzania
Tanganyika gained independence from the British in December 1961 and formed a union with Zanzibar in 1964, becoming the United Republic of Tanzania. There are believed to be over 120 ethnic tribes in the country but, such is the culture of non-violent conflict resolution and political engagement, that Tanzania is often described as one of the most politically stable countries in Africa.
Nevertheless, from independence until the mid-1990s, Tanzania operated as a one party state, ruled by the party later known as Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM). Eventually in October 1995 the first multiparty election was held, with 13 parties contesting, and the presidential election held simultaneously. Elections in 2005 led to another overwhelming CCM victory with Jakaya Kikwete taking over as president.
Kikwete is highly respected inside and outside Tanzania but is attacked by the opposition Civic United Front (CUF) for his failure to end the corruption that pervades everyday life. However, a new anti-corruption law was introduced in 2007 and early 2008 saw the resignation of the prime minister, two other cabinet ministers, and the central bank governor over graft accusations. Anti-corruption efforts are now targeting local government, the source of much of the petty bribery that affects ordinary households.
Poverty rates in Zanzibar are higher than on the mainland. CCM is also the ruling party in these islands, with Amani Abeid Karume the elected president. Elections and politics often generate far more heated debate than on the mainland and an outline agreement, known as Mwafaka, contemplates the CUF working in coalition with CCM. The question of full independence for Zanzibar is rarely far from the surface.
Human Rights in Tanzania
Human rights issues in Tanzania have been dominated by its status as a major refugee host country. Over several decades refugees have fled wars, genocide and famine in countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Somalia and Burundi. By 2000, there were 700,000 refugees in camps, making Tanzania the home of the largest number of refugees in the world, relative to GDP. The government has been constantly faced with tension between its obligations under the 1951 Refugee Convention and inevitable pressures on Tanzanian communities adjacent to refugee camps - as well as the decrepit state of the camps. Under Tanzanian law, the refugees themselves have been restricted in economic activity or movement.
2007 marked a determined effort by Tanzania and the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) to take advantage of improving conditions in Burundi and DRC to support a programme of repatriation and, in the case of Burundians who arrived as long ago as 1972, the offer of Tanzanian citizenship. Some of the oldest refugee camps have been closed and over 400,000 refugees have been repatriated to these two countries since 2006, a remarkable achievement by all concerned.
In the national context, violence against women is Tanzania's main concern. This often goes unreported or unpunished in court, due to patriarchal customs being upheld and women’s ignorance of their rights. These rights themselves are limited by gaps in the law on domestic violence and in the absence of support systems for victims.
In a recent survey, 15% of women disclosed that their first sexual encounter had been forced and there is strong correlation between sexual violence and HIV prevention. In respect of female genital mutilation, NGO advocacy groups and local community-based organizations have made some progress in overcoming deep seated traditions so that prevalence was down to about 15% in 2005.
Information and Media in Tanzania
State control of the media was lifted after the introduction of the multiparty system and there are now over a dozen daily newspapers, scores of weekly and monthly newspapers or periodicals, and six television stations, most of which were privately owned. By contrast, the situation in Zanzibar is more restricted, with critical papers banned by the regional government. Radio is the main media, with dozens of stations operating on the mainland.
The internet is available in Tanzania and mobile phone technology has leapfrogged shortcomings in infrastructure and is widely used. Both the internet and mobile phone technologies are being utilised by local people to develop and grow their businesses and likewise by development agencies as a means of communicating at grassroots level.
The OneWorld Tanzania Guide was first published in this format in December 2004 with a text written by Volunteer Editor Kathryn Russell
The rate of “basic needs” poverty in Tanzania is assessed by reference to the cost of a minimum calorie diet together with essential non-food items. The 2015 target for the purpose of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) is to halve the 39% rate effective in 1990. Prospects for success are very poor, as by 2007 the rate had fallen only as far as 34%. Indeed, due to population growth of over 2.5% pa, the number of people living in poverty has increased from 11.4 million to 12.9 million since 2000.
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| Market in Tanzania © Kathryn Russell |
This conclusion must come as a blow to the Tanzanian government. The National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty (NSGRP), known as Mkukuta in Swaheli (and Mkuza for Zanzibar), covers the 5 year period to 2010 and involved detailed consultation with international and local development stakeholders. Encouraged by the international financial institutions, the NSGRP places great emphasis on the contribution of economic growth to poverty reduction, linkage which has failed to deliver. The impressive growth rates in recent years have so far rewarded only the tiny urban elite that participates in the formal economy.
This gloomy picture is greatly cheered by the phenomenal progress in getting children into school that has occurred since 2004, thanks to the lifting of fees and the construction of hundreds of new schools. Net primary school enrolment has rocketed from 65% in 2001 to 97% in 2007; with girls benefiting as much as boys. These key MDG targets are therefore close to fulfilment. Given that the number of primary pupils has almost doubled to 8 million in this 6 year period, there are inevitable problems of capacity and the government has conceded that over 5,000 additional teachers are needed. Problems are also acknowledged in the failure of many children to complete the full period of primary education.
Tanzania is the largest recipient of aid in sub-Saharan Africa with over 40% of its budget funded by international donors. However, a recent survey uncovered the public perception that aid delivers greater benefits to civil servants than the poor. Appropriately, perhaps, Tanzania has been selected as a pilot country for the “One UN” concept. This seeks to avoid duplication of programmes amongst the large number of UN agencies active in the country.
Health and HIV/AIDS in Tanzania
Although prevalence of HIV/AIDS has stabilised since 2001, it remains as high as 6.2% on the mainland. There are 1.4 million people living with HIV/AIDS of whom 10% are children under 14. The number of AIDS orphans is projected to rise to over one million by 2010. Vast amounts of donor funds for HIV/AIDS have poured in, a third of all Tanzania’s foreign aid.
Coordinated by the Tanzania Commission for AIDS, years of public campaigns have created high awareness of the risks of HIV. A mass testing programme has reached over 4 million people and nearly 400,000 are receiving anti-retroviral treatment, within sight of the goal of universal coverage. However, the most recent national progress report warns that circumstances of widespread poverty create a difficult environment for overturning strong cultural norms of behaviour, especially in attitudes towards women. Legislation was passed during 2008 to protect the rights of people living with HIV and to prohibit discrimination.
Lack of capacity in rural areas is another important constraint, affecting all areas of health care. Whilst child mortality has fallen significantly since 2000, maternal mortality appears to be worsening, to the considerable consternation of both government and aid agencies. Data is unreliable but maternal mortality in 2005 has been estimated at 578 per 100,000 births, higher than the rate in 1996. Only 27% of births in rural areas were attended by a qualified health worker.
The government’s response is a 10-year Primary Health plan which aims to expand the availability of clinics and staff. However, this does not address the worrying reversals in the provision of safe drinking water. The HBS reports that “there has been a decrease in the use of piped water and other protected sources in all areas.” Almost 50% of households are using unprotected water sources. Whilst the report concedes that confusion over definitions of safe water may blur the overall trend, it is unequivocal that urban access has deteriorated. It seems likely that this disturbing outcome may be attributable to controversial privatisation programmes, now abandoned.
Food Security in Tanzania
Poverty in Tanzania is very substantially located in rural areas where most of the population lives. Nearly 70% of employment is in agriculture, mostly dependent on rainfed crops with poor access to transport, market knowledge and credit. Food sufficiency therefore varies considerably; in good years the country may enjoy a surplus beyond its needs. However, 40% of the population lives in areas described by the World Food Programme as “chronic food-deficit regions” where rainfall is scarce and irregular.
Over 20% of young children are underweight and malnutrition is the cause of about 25% of child mortality. Rural households spend 66% of their incomes on food and will have struggled to maintain their normal diet as prices of staple foods and fuel rose during 2008. The vuli rainy season for the end of 2008 has been reported as below average, suggesting that 2009 will be another difficult year. It is not surprising that the government is under pressure to review its enthusiasm for proposals to sell land to foreign investors to grow biofuel crops such as sugarcane and jatropha.
Climate Change in Tanzania
The 2006 MDG Progress Report for Tanzania makes not a single mention of the impact of climate change on poverty reduction plans. Yet the country's National Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) published in the following year offers over 60 pages of alarming grounds for concern. Of greatest significance is the assessment that a 2 degree rise in temperature could reduce yields of Tanzania's staple maize crop by as much as 33%. Diversifying into new crop varieties will test impoverished farmers to the limit.
|
| Receding glaciers of Mount Kilimanjaro © Greenpeace International |
Malaria is already reported to be established on the slopes of Kilimanjaro, an unprecedented hazard for local people. Other potential national impacts include increased insect infestations and pressure on the "rangelands" already overused for livestock. Clearly the poorest communities are most at risk. It seems illogical to pump hundreds of millions of aid dollars into Tanzania's development agenda whilst climate change adaptation funds contemplate mere fractions of these sums.
Politics in Tanzania
|
| Maasai Man © African Initiatives |
Nevertheless, from independence until the mid-1990s, Tanzania operated as a one party state, ruled by the party later known as Chama cha Mapinduzi (CCM). Eventually in October 1995 the first multiparty election was held, with 13 parties contesting, and the presidential election held simultaneously. Elections in 2005 led to another overwhelming CCM victory with Jakaya Kikwete taking over as president.
Kikwete is highly respected inside and outside Tanzania but is attacked by the opposition Civic United Front (CUF) for his failure to end the corruption that pervades everyday life. However, a new anti-corruption law was introduced in 2007 and early 2008 saw the resignation of the prime minister, two other cabinet ministers, and the central bank governor over graft accusations. Anti-corruption efforts are now targeting local government, the source of much of the petty bribery that affects ordinary households.
|
| Zanzibari boys © Kathryn Russell |
Human Rights in Tanzania
Human rights issues in Tanzania have been dominated by its status as a major refugee host country. Over several decades refugees have fled wars, genocide and famine in countries such as the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Rwanda, Somalia and Burundi. By 2000, there were 700,000 refugees in camps, making Tanzania the home of the largest number of refugees in the world, relative to GDP. The government has been constantly faced with tension between its obligations under the 1951 Refugee Convention and inevitable pressures on Tanzanian communities adjacent to refugee camps - as well as the decrepit state of the camps. Under Tanzanian law, the refugees themselves have been restricted in economic activity or movement.
2007 marked a determined effort by Tanzania and the UN Refugee Agency (UNHCR) to take advantage of improving conditions in Burundi and DRC to support a programme of repatriation and, in the case of Burundians who arrived as long ago as 1972, the offer of Tanzanian citizenship. Some of the oldest refugee camps have been closed and over 400,000 refugees have been repatriated to these two countries since 2006, a remarkable achievement by all concerned.
In the national context, violence against women is Tanzania's main concern. This often goes unreported or unpunished in court, due to patriarchal customs being upheld and women’s ignorance of their rights. These rights themselves are limited by gaps in the law on domestic violence and in the absence of support systems for victims.
In a recent survey, 15% of women disclosed that their first sexual encounter had been forced and there is strong correlation between sexual violence and HIV prevention. In respect of female genital mutilation, NGO advocacy groups and local community-based organizations have made some progress in overcoming deep seated traditions so that prevalence was down to about 15% in 2005.
Information and Media in Tanzania
|
| Ngorongoro Crater © Kathryn Russell |
The internet is available in Tanzania and mobile phone technology has leapfrogged shortcomings in infrastructure and is widely used. Both the internet and mobile phone technologies are being utilised by local people to develop and grow their businesses and likewise by development agencies as a means of communicating at grassroots level.
The OneWorld Tanzania Guide was first published in this format in December 2004 with a text written by Volunteer Editor Kathryn Russell
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