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Armenia guide
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| © New Internationalist |
As one of the oldest nations in the world, Armenia occupies a fraction of its ancestral lands. Invaded and subjugated to foreign rule throughout the centuries, many of Armenia's present day policies have been shaped by unresolved conflict and disputes with its neighbors. As a landlocked country with few natural resources, its full potential for economic development has been frustrated by effective isolation from the surrounding region. More than a million Armenians have emigrated to seek better lives abroad.
updated May 2007
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| Sevan Monastery, Armenia © Onnik Krikorian |
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| Khor Virap, Ararat Region, Armenia © Onnik Krikorian |
Millennium Development Goals
In August 2003, the Armenian government finalized its long-awaited Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) which aims to reduce poverty to 19% by 2015. According to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP), most of the PRSPs objectives are in line with achieving the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) which include combating poverty, improving the environment and addressing other pressing social issues.
However, the 2005 MDG progress report produced jointly by the government and UN agencies states that it is unrealistic for Armenia to halve the number of people living in poverty by 2015 compared to 1990 levels. It also believes that because of insufficient funding levels and inadequate access to healthcare for the poor, reducing infant and maternal mortality by 2015 might also prove unreachable.
Given the rate of deforestation in Armenia, UNDP also believes that it is unlikely for the Republic to ensure environmental sustainability by 2015. Otherwise, UNDP believes that Armenia is able to achieve the remaining MDGs.
Gender
The emigration of many men to find work in Russia and elsewhere has resulted in changes to the stereotypical roles of the largely patriarchal Armenian
society. However, the number of women effectively abandoned by their absentee husbands has increased and domestic violence is also a significant problem and the UN has only recently begun to address the issue after overcoming resistance from within the male-dominated society. The level of unemployment among women is also much higher than for men.
There are also serious concerns over the trafficking of women from Armenia to Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. In 2006, for the second consecutive year, the US Department of State included Armenia on its trafficking watch list after it found no sign that the Armenian government was tackling the issue seriously. Recent reports in local media alleged that government officials are involved in the trade, although no charges have been brought. And those non-officials accused of trafficking are usually prosecuted under different articles of the law which carry lesser sentences.
Politics
Armenian politics has been largely stable since independence from the Soviet Union was declared in 1991, although there have been sporadic episodes of unrest. In 1996 and 2003, protests against flawed presidential elections were quickly suppressed and, even in October 1999, when several key members of the Government including the Prime Minister were assassinated in the Armenian National Assembly, the situation in the Republic was kept under control.
Even so, there is an increasing risk of instability, stemming from the lack of progress in democratization since independence and the absence of a developed civil society in the country. The political situation has been exacerbated since February 2004 by the continuing boycott of the Armenian National Assembly by the opposition who, along with international observers, maintain that the 2003 presidential and parliamentary elections failed to comply with international standards.
Attempts to stage a "velvet revolution" in Armenia in 2004 failed due to widespread apathy in society and the use of draconian measures by the authorities to suppress opposition activity. In the following year, opposition attempts to disrupt a referendum to amend the constitution also failed. The amendments aimed to reduce the powers of the President and accelerate the process of democratization in Armenia. There was however international criticism when it became apparent that an officially high voter turnout contrasted sharply with reports of empty polling stations throughout the country.
By contrast parliamentary elections held in May 2007 were greeted with enthusiasm from both local and international observers who considered them a step forward and largely in compliance with international standards. The election, which consolidated the power of the ruling Republican party in the form of an overall parliamentary majority, was nevertheless not considered democratic by opposition forces and civil society who alleged widespread vote buying.
In 2008, Armenia will face the next test of its democratic credentials in a presidential election. Under the Constitution, the incumbent president, Robert Kocharian, cannot remain in office for more than two terms and it remains to be seen whether he will follow the example of other developing and former Soviet republics by allowing free and fair elections or by simply hand-picking his successor. Many in Armenia suspect that the May 2007 parliamentary election has made it more likely he will choose to pass on power to the Prime Minister, Serzh Sarkisian.
Human Rights
Compared to its neighbours, and especially, Azerbaijan, Turkey and Iran, Armenia has a reasonable human rights record. The Republic became largely mono-ethnic after its sizeable Azerbaijani population left the country at the beginning of the Karabakh conflict and so has been spared internal ethnic separatist movements of the type that have plagued Azerbaijan and Georgia, in particular. On the whole, the rights of the small ethnic communities that do exist are largely respected or they face the same problems as those of most ethnic Armenians.
However, in recent years, there have been concerns regarding the rights of religious minorities, particularly Jehovah's Witnesses who until recently were refused registration and whose male adherents have been imprisoned for refusing to take up arms. In 2004, the Armenian Government finally complied with Council of Europe requirements to register the organization and introduce alternative service options for conscripts. Nevertheless, international human rights observers are concerned that, despite reforms, the situation remains the same. As of November 2006, there were 43 Jehovahs Witnesses serving prison sentences for evading military service with another 5 awaiting trial.
Although the constitution provides for the separation of powers and rule of law, the Presidents ability to appoint and dismiss judges raises concerns about independence of the judiciary. The first president-appointed human rights ombudsman, Larissa Alaverdyan, was forced to leave her position at the beginning of 2006. Whilst this appointment had been in keeping with the recent amendments to the constitution, the way in which Alaverdyan was dismissed lends credibility to the belief that she had angered the President by speaking out about the oppression of opposition protests in 2004 and human rights violations surrounding the urban redevelopment of central Yerevan.
Conflict
In 1988, Armenians demanded that Nagorno Karabagh, a mainly Christian Armenian-populated territory situated within neighboring Moslem Azerbaijan, be united with Armenia. Pogroms against Armenians living in Azerbaijan followed and hundreds of thousands of Armenians and Azeris were forced to flee their respective countries, as the conflict between the two Republics erupted into a full scale war in 1991. Approximately 20,000 people died by the time the conflict ended, with a ceasefire agreement signed in May 1994.
Over 1 million refugees were created on both sides and ethnic Armenian forces now control 14% of what the international community considers Azerbaijani territory, including Nagorno Karabagh. Negotiations to find a lasting peace under the auspices of the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe (OSCE) Minsk Group continue to be held between Armenia and Azerbaijan, but renewed attempts to broker a peace deal failed in 2006 just before Armenias parliamentary election. Minsk Group mediators as well as the European Union believe that there is the possibility for securing a deal now that the 2007 election is over. However, with presidential elections due in both Armenia and Azerbaijan in 2008, the window of opportunity will not be open for long.
An ally of Azerbaijan in this conflict is Turkey, a country whose ambitions for membership of the European Union may hinge on differing interpretations of history of the First World War. Many European countries consider the mass killing and starvation of 1.5 million Armenians under Turkish Ottoman rule to be genocide a view so far contested by Turkey. Because of conflict with Azerbaijan and the absence of diplomatic relations with Ankara, the Armenian-Turkish border remains closed.
Health
Faced with severe economic difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet Union and an out-dated and over-staffed healthcare system, the Armenian government has been unable to guarantee free healthcare for all. Even though some sections of the population are entitled to free treatment, a system of informal payments exists and as a result a sizeable percentage of the population instead resorts to self- or home-treatment.
Health concerns are mostly limited to reproductive health and multi-drug resistant tuberculosis, with international organizations such as Médecins Sans Frontières supporting treatment and public health programmes. Infant mortality, which rose significantly in the first years after independence, has started to stabilize in recent years, although overall life expectancy has declined.
The number of those officially registered as HIV-positive stands at just 448 at the beginning of 2007. However, others believe that the actual figure is 10 times higher. In December 2004, the United Nations warned that Armenia faces a "potential disaster" if nothing is done to stop its spread. Access to free HIV testing is limited, with only one HIV/AIDS center in the capital.
Education
The education system in Armenia is currently under reform, with a World Bank-initiated process of optimization causing some concern. Plans to gradually close the Soviet-era specialized boarding schools for children with disabilities have been put on hold, as they now also accommodate normal children from vulnerable families.
As with the health sector, corruption is rampant throughout the education system, with cases of bribery and gift-giving by students to pass university entrance examinations. In June 2006, the Minister of Education warned that educational standards in Armenia were declining at an alarming rate.
Information and Media
While there is no formal censorship in place, many journalists adhere to the Soviet practice of self-censorship. In particular, as every television station is owned or controlled by political and economic forces close to the President, journalists seldom report news other than that which fulfills state propaganda purposes.
A1 Plus, an independent television station that provided alternative news, was taken off the air in April 2002. Despite concerns raised by the Council of Europe, the station has failed to win any subsequent tenders for a broadcasting frequency, despite well-reported irregularities in the tender process itself.
The situation with print media is somewhat better, with a variety of opinions and political views being represented. However, circulation is low and mostly confined to the capital, with few newspapers able to attract a readership of over 3,000 and thus financially reliant on political figures or businesses with political aspirations.
Access to the internet in Armenia is not restricted and international organizations are equipping schools with computers and connections. Most government agencies have their own websites, financed by the international donor community, and several critical media outlets have migrated online - unable to disseminate their alternative viewpoints through the broadcast media.
Nevertheless, in spite of the preponderance of internet cafes, the main obstacle to wider internet usage is financial and linked to the legally enforced telecommunications monopoly, ArmenTel. However, the monopoly on mobile communication was broken in 2005 with the emergence of a second company, Viva Cell, into the domestic market. The Greek OTE company also sold its controlling share in ArmenTel in early 2007 and the situation has started to improve since. Nevertheless, Armenia still lags years behind its two South Caucasus neighbours, Azerbaijan and Georgia, where internet use costs less and where the number of mobile phone subscribers and type of services is significantly higher.
Economy
The Armenian economy is considered one of the most liberal in the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). Despite a record of strong economic growth, underpinned by remittances from the large overseas Armenian diaspora, 34% of the population live below the national poverty line in 2007. The informal economy accounts for as much as 60% of GDP, which impacts tax revenue and the states financial capacity to improve public services.
The economic blockade set up by Azerbaijan and Turkey as a result of the unresolved conflict over Nagorno Karabagh poses another barrier to sustainable economic development. In recent years, the Armenian Government has also turned its attention towards promoting tourism, but the necessary infrastructure remains lacking in the outer regions. There are also concerns that, rather than promoting community-based tourism, existing infrastructure caters mainly to elite and business travelers.
Growth has been registered in other sectors of the economy such as IT, diamonds and construction, but the appreciation of the Armenian dram against the U.S. dollar continues to hit that part of the population reliant on remittances from abroad.
Environment
Armenia is a largely mountainous country with few natural resources. At the height of an energy crisis brought on by the economic blockade, many people resorted to firewood to heat their homes, resulting in rapid deforestation. The situation was ameliorated somewhat in 1995, when the Medzamor Nuclear Reactor situated near the Turkish border was reactivated after it had been closed in the wake of the devastating 1988 earthquake. Although the European Union has repeatedly requested that the nuclear reactor be shut, the government has refused, citing the lack of alternative energy sources.
Deforestation continues at an alarming rate, mainly as a result of illegal export of timber by government-connected businessman and military officials to Europe and beyond. Desertification affects several areas, including Yerevan, where government officials have destroyed parks and other green areas, often illegally, to build cafes, restaurants and luxurious mansions. In the summer of 2005, environmentalists, including representatives of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), warned that new plans to exploit protected forests and nature reserves will result in even more illegal logging and hunting.
Onnik Krikorian is a freelance journalist and photographer from the United Kingdom living and working in the Republic of Armenia for a variety of publications and organizations. He also maintains a blog from Armenia.
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| School, Shamiram, Armenia © Onnik Krikorian |
However, the 2005 MDG progress report produced jointly by the government and UN agencies states that it is unrealistic for Armenia to halve the number of people living in poverty by 2015 compared to 1990 levels. It also believes that because of insufficient funding levels and inadequate access to healthcare for the poor, reducing infant and maternal mortality by 2015 might also prove unreachable.
Given the rate of deforestation in Armenia, UNDP also believes that it is unlikely for the Republic to ensure environmental sustainability by 2015. Otherwise, UNDP believes that Armenia is able to achieve the remaining MDGs.
Gender
The emigration of many men to find work in Russia and elsewhere has resulted in changes to the stereotypical roles of the largely patriarchal Armenian
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| Khndzoresk, Armenia © Onnik Krikorian |
There are also serious concerns over the trafficking of women from Armenia to Turkey and the United Arab Emirates. In 2006, for the second consecutive year, the US Department of State included Armenia on its trafficking watch list after it found no sign that the Armenian government was tackling the issue seriously. Recent reports in local media alleged that government officials are involved in the trade, although no charges have been brought. And those non-officials accused of trafficking are usually prosecuted under different articles of the law which carry lesser sentences.
Politics
Armenian politics has been largely stable since independence from the Soviet Union was declared in 1991, although there have been sporadic episodes of unrest. In 1996 and 2003, protests against flawed presidential elections were quickly suppressed and, even in October 1999, when several key members of the Government including the Prime Minister were assassinated in the Armenian National Assembly, the situation in the Republic was kept under control.
Even so, there is an increasing risk of instability, stemming from the lack of progress in democratization since independence and the absence of a developed civil society in the country. The political situation has been exacerbated since February 2004 by the continuing boycott of the Armenian National Assembly by the opposition who, along with international observers, maintain that the 2003 presidential and parliamentary elections failed to comply with international standards.
Attempts to stage a "velvet revolution" in Armenia in 2004 failed due to widespread apathy in society and the use of draconian measures by the authorities to suppress opposition activity. In the following year, opposition attempts to disrupt a referendum to amend the constitution also failed. The amendments aimed to reduce the powers of the President and accelerate the process of democratization in Armenia. There was however international criticism when it became apparent that an officially high voter turnout contrasted sharply with reports of empty polling stations throughout the country.
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| 2007 Parliamentary Election Opposition Rally, Yerevan © Onnik Krikorian |
In 2008, Armenia will face the next test of its democratic credentials in a presidential election. Under the Constitution, the incumbent president, Robert Kocharian, cannot remain in office for more than two terms and it remains to be seen whether he will follow the example of other developing and former Soviet republics by allowing free and fair elections or by simply hand-picking his successor. Many in Armenia suspect that the May 2007 parliamentary election has made it more likely he will choose to pass on power to the Prime Minister, Serzh Sarkisian.
Human Rights
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| Christian church, Haghartsin, Armenia © Onnik Krikorian |
However, in recent years, there have been concerns regarding the rights of religious minorities, particularly Jehovah's Witnesses who until recently were refused registration and whose male adherents have been imprisoned for refusing to take up arms. In 2004, the Armenian Government finally complied with Council of Europe requirements to register the organization and introduce alternative service options for conscripts. Nevertheless, international human rights observers are concerned that, despite reforms, the situation remains the same. As of November 2006, there were 43 Jehovahs Witnesses serving prison sentences for evading military service with another 5 awaiting trial.
Although the constitution provides for the separation of powers and rule of law, the Presidents ability to appoint and dismiss judges raises concerns about independence of the judiciary. The first president-appointed human rights ombudsman, Larissa Alaverdyan, was forced to leave her position at the beginning of 2006. Whilst this appointment had been in keeping with the recent amendments to the constitution, the way in which Alaverdyan was dismissed lends credibility to the belief that she had angered the President by speaking out about the oppression of opposition protests in 2004 and human rights violations surrounding the urban redevelopment of central Yerevan.
Conflict
In 1988, Armenians demanded that Nagorno Karabagh, a mainly Christian Armenian-populated territory situated within neighboring Moslem Azerbaijan, be united with Armenia. Pogroms against Armenians living in Azerbaijan followed and hundreds of thousands of Armenians and Azeris were forced to flee their respective countries, as the conflict between the two Republics erupted into a full scale war in 1991. Approximately 20,000 people died by the time the conflict ended, with a ceasefire agreement signed in May 1994.
Over 1 million refugees were created on both sides and ethnic Armenian forces now control 14% of what the international community considers Azerbaijani territory, including Nagorno Karabagh. Negotiations to find a lasting peace under the auspices of the Organization for Security and Co-Operation in Europe (OSCE) Minsk Group continue to be held between Armenia and Azerbaijan, but renewed attempts to broker a peace deal failed in 2006 just before Armenias parliamentary election. Minsk Group mediators as well as the European Union believe that there is the possibility for securing a deal now that the 2007 election is over. However, with presidential elections due in both Armenia and Azerbaijan in 2008, the window of opportunity will not be open for long.
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| Tsitsernakaberd Genocide Memorial © Onnik Krikorian |
Health
Faced with severe economic difficulties after the collapse of the Soviet Union and an out-dated and over-staffed healthcare system, the Armenian government has been unable to guarantee free healthcare for all. Even though some sections of the population are entitled to free treatment, a system of informal payments exists and as a result a sizeable percentage of the population instead resorts to self- or home-treatment.
Health concerns are mostly limited to reproductive health and multi-drug resistant tuberculosis, with international organizations such as Médecins Sans Frontières supporting treatment and public health programmes. Infant mortality, which rose significantly in the first years after independence, has started to stabilize in recent years, although overall life expectancy has declined.
The number of those officially registered as HIV-positive stands at just 448 at the beginning of 2007. However, others believe that the actual figure is 10 times higher. In December 2004, the United Nations warned that Armenia faces a "potential disaster" if nothing is done to stop its spread. Access to free HIV testing is limited, with only one HIV/AIDS center in the capital.
Education
The education system in Armenia is currently under reform, with a World Bank-initiated process of optimization causing some concern. Plans to gradually close the Soviet-era specialized boarding schools for children with disabilities have been put on hold, as they now also accommodate normal children from vulnerable families.
As with the health sector, corruption is rampant throughout the education system, with cases of bribery and gift-giving by students to pass university entrance examinations. In June 2006, the Minister of Education warned that educational standards in Armenia were declining at an alarming rate.
Information and Media
While there is no formal censorship in place, many journalists adhere to the Soviet practice of self-censorship. In particular, as every television station is owned or controlled by political and economic forces close to the President, journalists seldom report news other than that which fulfills state propaganda purposes.
A1 Plus, an independent television station that provided alternative news, was taken off the air in April 2002. Despite concerns raised by the Council of Europe, the station has failed to win any subsequent tenders for a broadcasting frequency, despite well-reported irregularities in the tender process itself.
The situation with print media is somewhat better, with a variety of opinions and political views being represented. However, circulation is low and mostly confined to the capital, with few newspapers able to attract a readership of over 3,000 and thus financially reliant on political figures or businesses with political aspirations.
Access to the internet in Armenia is not restricted and international organizations are equipping schools with computers and connections. Most government agencies have their own websites, financed by the international donor community, and several critical media outlets have migrated online - unable to disseminate their alternative viewpoints through the broadcast media.
Nevertheless, in spite of the preponderance of internet cafes, the main obstacle to wider internet usage is financial and linked to the legally enforced telecommunications monopoly, ArmenTel. However, the monopoly on mobile communication was broken in 2005 with the emergence of a second company, Viva Cell, into the domestic market. The Greek OTE company also sold its controlling share in ArmenTel in early 2007 and the situation has started to improve since. Nevertheless, Armenia still lags years behind its two South Caucasus neighbours, Azerbaijan and Georgia, where internet use costs less and where the number of mobile phone subscribers and type of services is significantly higher.
Economy
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| IDP from the 1988 Armenian Earthquake, Gyumri, Shirak Region © Onnik Krikorian |
The economic blockade set up by Azerbaijan and Turkey as a result of the unresolved conflict over Nagorno Karabagh poses another barrier to sustainable economic development. In recent years, the Armenian Government has also turned its attention towards promoting tourism, but the necessary infrastructure remains lacking in the outer regions. There are also concerns that, rather than promoting community-based tourism, existing infrastructure caters mainly to elite and business travelers.
Growth has been registered in other sectors of the economy such as IT, diamonds and construction, but the appreciation of the Armenian dram against the U.S. dollar continues to hit that part of the population reliant on remittances from abroad.
Environment
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| Ararat Region, Armenia © Onnik Krikorian |
Deforestation continues at an alarming rate, mainly as a result of illegal export of timber by government-connected businessman and military officials to Europe and beyond. Desertification affects several areas, including Yerevan, where government officials have destroyed parks and other green areas, often illegally, to build cafes, restaurants and luxurious mansions. In the summer of 2005, environmentalists, including representatives of the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), warned that new plans to exploit protected forests and nature reserves will result in even more illegal logging and hunting.
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